Module 31:: Describe Piaget's Theory of Intellectual Development with Special Regard to the Following: Assimilation and Accommodation, Object Concept in the Sensorimotor Stage, the Symbolic Function in the Pre-Operational Stage, Conservation in the Concrete Operational Stage, and the Use of the Hypothetical-Deductive Method in the Formal Operational Stage
Jean Piaget categorized children into four stages of cognitive development. These stages are the sensorimotor stages from ages birth to two years of age, the preoperational stage, from age two to age seven, the operational stage from age seven to age eleven, and the formal operational stage which begins in adolescence and goes into adulthood.
The sensorimotor stage is when infants acquire knowledge through sensory experiences. Their intelligence consists of their basic motor and sensory discoveries. Learning object permanence was an important element in this stage of development. Children are able to attach names and words to objects.
The preoperational stage kids learn pretend play. They struggle with constancy, and point of view for others. So if the same amount of water was poured into a tall glass and a shallow glass the child would think there was more water in the tall glass because it looks bigger.
The concrete operational stage is when the child begins to think logically. They will still struggle with abstract thoughts. The child will now be less egocentric and think about what others feel. They will also notice that not everyone thinks the same way as they do. They will also know that the appearance of something can change even though the thing itself does not.
The formal operational stage starts when an increase in the ability to use hypothetical deductive reasoning and understand abstract ideas. At this stage humans should be able to problem solve and think scientifically about the world.
Assimilation is the process of taking new information and applying it to previously learned information. The information that we take is put into what we call a schema. Accommodation is a part of adaption that involves altering existing schemas with new information.
The sensorimotor stage is when infants acquire knowledge through sensory experiences. Their intelligence consists of their basic motor and sensory discoveries. Learning object permanence was an important element in this stage of development. Children are able to attach names and words to objects.
The preoperational stage kids learn pretend play. They struggle with constancy, and point of view for others. So if the same amount of water was poured into a tall glass and a shallow glass the child would think there was more water in the tall glass because it looks bigger.
The concrete operational stage is when the child begins to think logically. They will still struggle with abstract thoughts. The child will now be less egocentric and think about what others feel. They will also notice that not everyone thinks the same way as they do. They will also know that the appearance of something can change even though the thing itself does not.
The formal operational stage starts when an increase in the ability to use hypothetical deductive reasoning and understand abstract ideas. At this stage humans should be able to problem solve and think scientifically about the world.
Assimilation is the process of taking new information and applying it to previously learned information. The information that we take is put into what we call a schema. Accommodation is a part of adaption that involves altering existing schemas with new information.
|
Artifact 2: This video shows the stages of development in real kids. The fist stage shows how a baby plays peekaboo. The second stage talks about object permanence and talks about the water in the glass trick. The third stage shows how the kids are able to understand the water in the glass trick. In the fourth stage the kids are able to think more scientifically.
|
Resources: http://psychology.about.com/od/piagetstheory/a/keyconcepts.htm
https://www.mentalhelp.net/articles/jean-piaget-s-theory-of-cognitive-development/
https://www.mentalhelp.net/articles/jean-piaget-s-theory-of-cognitive-development/
Module 32:: Describe the Difference Between Sensation and Perception
Sensation is bringing information from the outside world into the body and the brain. We can be engaging in sensation with out even knowing. Sensation occurs when the organs take in energy from the environment. The receptors convert energy into impulses and send them to the brain. The brain will then transfer information in to something that is meaningful.
Perception is our understanding of how we perceive things. Perception is related to the five scenes and how they differ. Recognizing objects and smells are all a part of perception. Perception in necessary to survive in our environment. It also involves how we respond to the information gained.
Sensation and perception are different terms of how we process information. In sensation, the physical stimulus together with its physical properties is taken in by sensory organs. The organs will then take this information and transform it into signals. Perception follows sensation. The brain impulses go through a series of organizational, transition and interpretation. Then perception is finished and then we are able to make sense of situations.
Perception is our understanding of how we perceive things. Perception is related to the five scenes and how they differ. Recognizing objects and smells are all a part of perception. Perception in necessary to survive in our environment. It also involves how we respond to the information gained.
Sensation and perception are different terms of how we process information. In sensation, the physical stimulus together with its physical properties is taken in by sensory organs. The organs will then take this information and transform it into signals. Perception follows sensation. The brain impulses go through a series of organizational, transition and interpretation. Then perception is finished and then we are able to make sense of situations.
Artifact 1: I live in the middle of the woods. Around this time of year the flowers, trees, and bushes start to blossom. The smells of the new buds fill the air. When I smell the new buds, the stimulus is registered by the sensory organs, the organs decode and transmit the information to the brain. This is sensation. Next is perception, the impulses go through interpretation and than I am able to make sense that I am smelling the new buds blooming in the woods.
|
|
Artifact 2: This youtube clip has some really good examples of how we perceive information. The man explains many different ways of perceiving information.
|
Resources: http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/s&p.html
http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-perception-in-psychology-definition-theory-quiz.html
https://explorable.com/sensation-and-perception
http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-perception-in-psychology-definition-theory-quiz.html
https://explorable.com/sensation-and-perception
Module 33: Describe the Role that Expectation and Motivation have in Perception
The way you see the world is influenced and changed by your expectations and motivations. This is known as a perceptual set. A perceptual set is the tendency to view things only in a certain way. These sets can impact how we see and respond to our environment. Motivation plays a huge role in perceptual sets. If we are motivated by a certain stimulus then we are more prone to think a certain way. Expectations play a giant role too. If we expect people or things to behave a certain way then these expectations influence how we perceive their roles. Other things such as culture and emotion impact how we perceive our environment.
Artifact 1: One of my favorite things about high school is attending basketball games. But I have noticed that whenever I am at one of those games I always see the other team as weak, or overly aggressive even if they are not. The reason I think this is because I have a motive that is pushing me to perceive this information differently.
|
Module 34:: Summarize the Gestalt Principles of Perception
Gestalt is a term that means ¨unified whole¨ This refers to how people visually perceive information. This was developed by a German psychologist is the early 1900s. The first principle is similarity. Similarity is when tow or more objects look the same. If something is dissimilar in a group of similar things, then that thing tends to be the vocal point. The second principle is continuation. Continuation s when the eye moves through one object and continues to another object. The third principle is closure. Closure occurs when an object is incomplete and people perceive the whole image by filling in missing information. The fourth principle is proximity. Proximity occurs when elements are placed close together, then people see them as a group. The fifth principle is figure and ground. The eye can distinguish an object from its surrounding are.
|
Artifact 1: This youtube video has different pictures that many people see differently. This video will explain why we see the images differently.
|
Resources: http://graphicdesign.spokanefalls.edu/tutorials/process/gestaltprinciples/gestaltprinc.htm
Module 35:: Explain the Processes of Depth Perception and Size Constancy
The definition of depth perception is the ability to judge the distance of objects. This also allows us to see the object in 3-D. This process starts when two dimensional images strike the retina, then our visual system is able to translate this 2-D image into 3-D. By two months of age babies are able to perceive depth. They are not able to see depth before this because of weak eye muscles. When something is far away from us we rely on monocular cues, for things that are closer to us that only require two eyes we use monocular cues and binocular cues. Monocular depth cues come into play when we use eye muscles to change the shape of the lens to focus on an object. Binocular cues require both eyes. When we look at nearby objects our eyes come together and look at the same object to give us information about their distance.
The definition of size constancy is the tendency to perceive an object as being the same size regardless to whether how far away or how close. The visual system unconsciously infers the size of an object from cues about its distance. Psychologists can explain size constancy with Emmert's Law: know distance determines apparent size. You know how far things are because we have depth cues, so you are able to judge for the size of an image producing size constancy.
The definition of size constancy is the tendency to perceive an object as being the same size regardless to whether how far away or how close. The visual system unconsciously infers the size of an object from cues about its distance. Psychologists can explain size constancy with Emmert's Law: know distance determines apparent size. You know how far things are because we have depth cues, so you are able to judge for the size of an image producing size constancy.
Artifact 1: My grandparents live in Florida for the winter, and sometimes I get lucky and my family decides to visit them. In a few days we are flying high above the ground in an air plane. I like to sit by the window and look down at all the cars on the highways. Since my brain has a good sense of size constancy I know that even though the cars look as small as ants I know they are still the same size just farther away.
|
Resources:http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Depth%20Perception
http://psychology.jrank.org/pages/176/Depth-Perception.html
http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Size%20Constancy
http://www.intropsych.com/ch04_senses/size_constancy.html
http://psychology.jrank.org/pages/176/Depth-Perception.html
http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Size%20Constancy
http://www.intropsych.com/ch04_senses/size_constancy.html
Module 36:: Explain the Relationship Between Size Constancy and the Muller-Lyer Illusion
The image to the right is an optical illusion. The line with the arrow facing inward appears to be the longest while the line with the arrows pointing outward seems to be the shortest. But really all arrows are the same length. This was first discovered in 1889 by F.C. Muller-Lyer. By looking at illusions like this researchers can learn more about how the brain works. The mystery is what causes optical illusions. Illusions occur because of a misapplication of size constancy. Problems with depth perception also play a role in how we perceive things. Another alternative is that illusions occur when we have conflicts with our cues. Our ability to perceive lengths of lines depends upon the length of the line itself and the overall length of the figure.
|
Artifact 1: Above is a picture of three lines. It appears that the line in the middle with the fins pointing inward is the longest. But really all the lines are the same length.
|
Artifact 2: Below is a YouTube video that shows different optical illusions.
|
Module 37:: Describe the Characteristics of Short and Long Term Memory and the Theories of Forgetting
Memory is the processes involved in the storage and retrieval of information. Memory is vital to our lives. Without memory we wouldn't be able to learn anything. Most people can store up to 9 items in their short-term memory. The duration of short term memory is between 15 and 30 seconds. Items in the short term memory can stay here if they are repeated verbally. The repetition of something verbally is called acoustic encoding.
Long-term memory is the storage of information. Long-term memory is also know as precocious and unconscious. Some of the information in our brain is out of our awareness. The information in short-term memory can come into long-term memory. Long-term memories can last for decades. There are two types of long-term memory. Declarative is all memories that are available in consciousness. This also includes semantic memory which is knowledge about the world. Procedural memory is memories of body movement and how we use objects.
Forgetting from short-term memory (STM) is when a trace left in the nervous system decays. Then this decay worsens and now it has limited time in the STM. If the memory is not rehearsed the memory will fade away. There will always be time between learning something and recalling it, this is another way we forget things. Forgetting from long-term memory (LTM) can be caused by confusion of information during the encoding process. Some memories can become confused with others and can lead to being forgotten. proactive interference occurs when someone cannot learn a new task because the old task has been pounded into the brain so many times. Retroactive interference is when you forget a learned task because of a new task. These are all things that cause us to forget information.
Long-term memory is the storage of information. Long-term memory is also know as precocious and unconscious. Some of the information in our brain is out of our awareness. The information in short-term memory can come into long-term memory. Long-term memories can last for decades. There are two types of long-term memory. Declarative is all memories that are available in consciousness. This also includes semantic memory which is knowledge about the world. Procedural memory is memories of body movement and how we use objects.
Forgetting from short-term memory (STM) is when a trace left in the nervous system decays. Then this decay worsens and now it has limited time in the STM. If the memory is not rehearsed the memory will fade away. There will always be time between learning something and recalling it, this is another way we forget things. Forgetting from long-term memory (LTM) can be caused by confusion of information during the encoding process. Some memories can become confused with others and can lead to being forgotten. proactive interference occurs when someone cannot learn a new task because the old task has been pounded into the brain so many times. Retroactive interference is when you forget a learned task because of a new task. These are all things that cause us to forget information.
Artifact 1: In my math class we are learning a lot of different formulas. One day we will go over one formula and I will understand it perfectly. Then the next day we will go over another formula. Soon I realize that I forgot all about the other formula and I will need a refresher. This is an instance of retroactive interference.
|
Artifact 2: Today I had to write a short story with the topic: ¨What day of your life would you revisit¨. The day I chose to watch was the day my parents brought me home from the hospital a few days after I was born. To write this story I had to think way back to a few years ago when my mom told me the detailed story of the drive back from the hospital. The memory that I had of this story was stored in my long-term memory.
|
Resources: http://www.simplypsychology.org/memory.html
http://www.simplypsychology.org/short-term-memory.html
http://psychology.about.com/od/memory/f/long-term-memory.htm
http://www.simplypsychology.org/forgetting.html
http://www.simplypsychology.org/short-term-memory.html
http://psychology.about.com/od/memory/f/long-term-memory.htm
http://www.simplypsychology.org/forgetting.html
Module 38:: Describe the Different Theories of Motivation
Motivation is a force that guides our behaviors. Some of the things that can persuade our motivation are social, emotional, and cognitive factors. The first theory is Instinct, people who behave a certain way do so because they are programmed to do so. William James listed several instincts such as attachement, play, anger, fear, and love. The second theory is the Incentive theory of motivation. This suggests that people are motivated to do things by external rewards. drive theory of motivation. This theory states that people have a drive to take certain actions to reduce tension that is caused by their needs. This theory is used to explain hunger and thirst. The next theory is the arousal theory of motivation. The arousal theory says that certain actions increase levels of arousal. When arousal levels are low someone will go on a jog. When arousal levels get high the person will sit down and relax. The last theory is the humanistic theory of motivation. This theory states that people have strong reasons to perform various actions. We are motivated to fulfill needs for good shelter, safety and love. One of our primary motivators is self-actualization.
Artifact 2: My track coach showed me a YouTube video of a MMA match. One man had down syndrome and it was his first match at MMA. The opponent was a very strong and well known fighter. He decided to take the loss so that the other man could have the joy of a win. I believe that this correlates with the incentive theory of motivation, because even though he did this for the other man with down syndrome, he knew that he was going to feel an internal reward after doing this good dead. The article will explain this in more detail. http://www.mmamania.com/2015/4/20/8457173/video-ufc-veteran-fights-man-with-down-syndrome-loses-by-second-round-submission-mma
Module 39:: Summarize the Ethical Guidelines for Research on Human Subjects
All research that involves humans is reviewed and ensured that ethical standards are being upheld. Here are the standards given by the American Psychological Association (APA) that must be followed. The first standard is informed consent this means that the patient must know the exact research being done and they must give their permission. The second standard states that if the participants are unsure about the study, they may take their time giving consent. They must also be careful about trauma caused by deception. The third standard is coercion which means that patients cannot be forced to give consent in any way. The fourth standard is anonymity which means the identity of the patient must remain anonymous. The fifth standard is risk. A patient cannot be placed at risk. The last standard is debriefing procedures. The patients must be told the purpose of the study and provide a way to contact the researcher about results.
Artifact 1: At our school some of the higher level classes have to do plus 1 projects. Some of those projects involve researching humans. One of my friends participated in this project and she had to sign consent forms. She was also explained what the process was and given a way to reach the student who was conducting the experiment. This was a laid back way of using ethical guidelines for human research.
|
Artifact 2: This article explains why we need ethics in research. It also talks about the principals that most codes address. These codes are honesty, objectivity, integrity, carefulness, openness, respect for intellectual property, confidentiality, social responsibility, and many more. http://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/whatis/ This cartoon
Resources: http://www.who.int/ethics/research/en/
http://bxscience.enschool.org/ourpages/auto/2008/9/3/1220445713412/ethics.pdf
http://bxscience.enschool.org/ourpages/auto/2008/9/3/1220445713412/ethics.pdf
Module 40:: Define Intelligence and the History of Measuring it
There is no actual standard of intelligence but it generally means the range of aptitude, skills, and talents. Charles Spearman in the late 1800s to the early 1900s measured intelligence by scores on a test. He concluded that intelligence is able to be measured by numbers. Louis L. Thurstone saw intelligence in a different way. He judged intelligence on seven different categories: Verbal comprehension, reasoning, perceptual speed, numerical ability, word fluency, and associative memory. Howard Gardner concluded that there are multiple types of intelligence. He describes eight distinct intelligences: Visual-spatial, verbal-linguistic, bodily-kinesthetic, logical-mathematical,interpersonal intelligence, musical intelligence, intra personal intelligence, and naturalistic intelligence. Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as ¨mental activity toward purpose adaption to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to one's life.¨ He also believed that there was not just one type of intelligence. He believed that it was comprised of three different factors. The analytically intelligence which is the component to problem-solving. The creative intelligence which is the ability to deal with new situations using past experiences and current skills. The last intelligence is practical intelligence which is the ability to change the environment.
Artifact 1: One of my dads favorite this to landscape and be outside. He enjoys hunting fishing, and anything dealing with nature. Ever since I was able to walk my dad has taken me on nature hikes and taught me how to fish. My dad has been nature smart since he was a little boy. We would say that my dad has naturalistic intelligence.
|
|
Artifact 2: This YouTube video give great examples of intelligence types. My friend Abbie is very musically talented she has a beautiful voice and can pick up musical instruments easily. Abbie would be said to have musical intelligence.
|
Module 41:: Summarize the Development of Language Formation
The first stage of language formation is babbling. This is also known as prelinguistic. During this time of about age 3-9 months babies are able to make vowel sounds. By about 5 months the baby is able to add a few consonants. The second stage is the single word stage or holophase stage. This starts at around 13 months the child is able to say its first few words. At this stage babies are able to understand language but they are not as fast to produce the language. The next stage is the two word stage. The child is usually only able to pronounce a verb and a noun. The next stage is multi-word sentence stage. At around the age of two children produce short sentences. When the child is ready to enter school they will know about 10,000 words.
Artifact 1: I have a cousin who is about at 5 months I love listening to her coo and make her small noises. My cousin Marlowe is at the babbling stage in her language development. I have another cousin who is about 18 months he is at the stage where he can say small sentences like ¨Where mommy?¨ or ¨Yummy Cookie¨.
|
|
Artifact 2: This is an example of a boy at about the age of 5 he knows many words and will soon learn more as he gets older. This YouTube video will show several different words that five year-olds commonly use.
|
Resources: http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/ss/early-childhood-development_5.htm